🕊️ A Nontraditional Chronological Reading of Genesis: Ishmael’s Role in the Sequence of Covenants

This argument represents a nontraditional chronological reading of Genesis that seeks to reconcile narrative and covenantal tensions surrounding Abraham, Ishmael, and Isaac. It reorders the events to portray Ishmael—not Isaac—as the son tested in the near-sacrifice episode, interpreting Genesis as a progressive unfolding of divine trials and covenantal ratifications.

➤ 1. Premise: The Covenants and Promises Are Sequentially Related

Proponents begin by noting that Genesis presents several covenantal moments with Abraham—particularly in Genesis 15, Genesis 17, Genesis 21, and Genesis 22—which they view as successive stages of a single divine plan rather than separate, unrelated episodes.

★ Genesis 15: God promises Abraham descendants as numerous as the stars.

★ Genesis 17: God formalizes this promise through the covenant of circumcision, renaming Abram as Abraham, “father of many nations.”

★ Genesis 21:14–20: Abraham faces his first test concerning Ishmael’s fate when Hagar and Ishmael are sent away into the wilderness.

★ Genesis 22: Abraham faces the ultimate test—offering his “only son” to God.

In this interpretive model, the episodes are not arranged chronologically in the canonical order. Genesis 21 and 22, both dealing with Ishmael, are understood to precede Genesis 17, forming the experiential foundation upon which the covenant of circumcision is later ratified.

➤ 2. Core Claim: Genesis 22 Chronologically Precedes Genesis 17

According to this reading, Genesis 22 occurs before Genesis 17, despite its later canonical placement. The reasoning is textual and internal:

In Genesis 17, Isaac’s birth is announced for the first time.
Therefore, before Genesis 17, Isaac does not yet exist.
Yet in Genesis 22, Abraham is commanded to sacrifice his “only son,” a description that fits Ishmael in the earlier stage of Abraham’s life.

Thus, the son offered in Genesis 22 must be Ishmael, since Isaac had not been born or promised at that point.

➤ 3. Genesis 21:14–20 as the First Test of Abraham

Before the near-sacrifice in Genesis 22, Genesis 21:14–20 portrays Abraham’s earlier emotional trial concerning Ishmael. In this episode, Abraham sends Hagar and Ishmael away into the wilderness at Sarah’s request. Ishmael is depicted as an infant, carried by Hagar, aligning closely with the Islamic narrative in which Ishmael is still a small child during their departure to the desert (Mecca).

According to Genesis 16:16 and 21:5, Ishmael was 16–17 years old at this point. The surrounding verses (vv. 14–20), however, treat him as if he were an infant. This is not a stylistic flourish but a direct contradiction in age and behavior within the same episode.

This “banishment test” becomes Abraham’s first trial involving Ishmael, testing his faith and trust in God’s promise of Ishmael’s preservation and greatness (“I will make him a great nation,” Gen 21:18).

The subsequent “sacrifice test” in Genesis 22 then forms the second and supreme trial, wherein Abraham’s obedience is tested to its fullest measure. These two episodes—both centered on Ishmael—thus frame Abraham’s faith development before the covenantal ratification of Genesis 17.

➤ 4. Identification of the Sacrificed Son as Ishmael

On this reordered chronology:

★ The “only son” of Genesis 22 refers to Ishmael, Abraham’s firstborn by Hagar.

★ The phrase “your son, your only son” (Gen 22:2) fits Ishmael prior to Isaac’s birth.

★ The later introduction of Isaac (Gen 17–18) is not a replacement but a continuation of the divine plan—rewarding Abraham’s faithfulness through a second lineage that expands the original covenant.

Hence, the Akedah (binding of the son) becomes a test of Ishmael’s line, and Genesis 17 becomes a ratification of that obedience through the promise of “many nations.”

➤ 5. Genesis 17 as Covenant Ratification

In this model, Genesis 17 does not precede but follows the tests of Genesis 21–22. It represents God’s ratification of Abraham’s proven obedience:

★ Abraham is renamed and blessed as “father of many nations.”

★ Circumcision is introduced as a covenantal sign, extending the promise to all his progeny.

★ The birth of Isaac is announced as a reward and continuation of divine favor.

Thus, Genesis 17 serves as the formalization of the faith demonstrated earlier through Abraham’s trials involving Ishmael.

➤ 6. Literary-Critical Perspective

From a literary-critical standpoint, this interpretation draws upon source-critical and redactional insights. Scholars employing the Documentary Hypothesis often distinguish between several compositional layers within Genesis, each reflecting different theological emphases and historical contexts:

★ Genesis 21 and Genesis 22 are generally attributed to the Elohist (E) and Jahwist (J) sources, which are earlier traditions. These sources emphasize vivid narrative, moral testing, and divine encounter—often conveyed through the figure of the angel of the Lord.

★ Genesis 17, by contrast, is assigned to the Priestly (P) source, which is later in composition and is marked by formal covenantal language, ritual precision, and theological systematization.

Within this framework, proponents of the chronological reordering argue that the older E/J traditions—which may have originally centered on Ishmael—were subsequently integrated and reinterpreted by Priestly editors. These later redactors inserted Genesis 17’s covenantal structure before the narrative of Genesis 22, thereby reshaping the sequence to emphasize Isaac as the covenantal heir.

Thus, from a literary-critical perspective, the hypothesis that Genesis 22 predates Genesis 17 in origin aligns with the idea that an earlier Ishmaelite-focused narrative was overlaid by a later Priestly redaction, producing the canonical order familiar today.

➤ 7. Summary Articulation

To summarize:

★ 1. Genesis 21:14–20 presents Abraham’s first test concerning Ishmael’s separation, aligning with the Islamic account of the desert episode.

★ 2. Genesis 22 (the near-sacrifice) represents the second and climactic test, also involving Ishmael.

★ 3. Genesis 17, announcing Isaac’s birth and instituting circumcision, follows these trials and serves as God’s ratification of Abraham’s faith.

Therefore, the sequence Genesis 21 → Genesis 22 → Genesis 17 portrays a coherent theological and narrative progression in which Abraham’s obedience regarding Ishmael becomes the foundation for his establishment as the “father of many nations.”

This reading not only restores textual coherence to the phrase “your only son,” but also integrates Ishmael’s covenantal significance and provides a bridge between Biblical and Qur’anic portrayals of Abraham’s faith.

🌟 The Abrahamic Covenant: Before or After the Near-Sacrifice?

The Abrahamic covenant is central to the shared heritage of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Yet a key question remains: Was this covenant established before or after the near-sacrifice of Abraham’s son? The answer depends on how the scriptures are read and how different traditions interpret the sequence of events.

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1. The Canonical Biblical Order

According to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, the Abrahamic covenant is established before the episode of sacrifice:

• Genesis 15 — God pledges to Abraham countless descendants and grants him the land of Canaan.
• Genesis 17 — The covenant is reaffirmed; Abraham receives his new name, circumcision is instituted as its sign, and the promise of nations and kings through his offspring is declared.
• Genesis 22 — Only afterward does the narrative describe the “Akedah” (binding of Isaac), where Abraham is commanded to sacrifice his son.

In this canonical sequence, the covenant precedes the sacrifice, with the latter serving as a divine test of Abraham’s loyalty and faith.

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2. The Qur’anic Perspective — Covenant After the Sacrifice

The Qur’an reorders the logic of the covenant. Instead of covenant preceding sacrifice, the covenant is bestowed after Abraham’s obedience in the trial of sacrifice:

• Surah al-Saffāt (37:100–113): Abraham sees in a vision that he must sacrifice his son (identified in Islamic tradition as Ishmael). Both father and son submit, but God ransoms the son with a great sacrifice, showing the fullness of their submission (islām).


• Surah al-Baqarah (2:124): This verse makes explicit that the covenant of leadership (imāmah) came after Abraham fulfilled his trials:

“And when Abraham was tested by his Lord with certain words and he fulfilled them, He said: ‘I have appointed you as a leader for the people.’ Abraham said: ‘And of my descendants?’ He said: ‘My covenant does not include the wrongdoers.’”
Here, covenantal authority is not automatic but conditional — awarded only after demonstrated faith.

Key Implications:

Obedience Before Covenant: The trial of sacrifice is the turning point that secures Abraham’s role as leader.
Ishmael’s Role: Since Ishmael is the son identified with the sacrifice, the covenant is understood to extend through him, culminating in the building of the Kaaba (Qur’an 2:125–129).
Conditional Covenant: The Qur’an stresses that covenantal blessings apply only to the righteous line of descendants.
Thus, from the Qur’anic perspective, the covenant is not pre-declared but ratified after Abraham’s supreme act of submission.

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3. Scholarly Reordered Reading of Genesis

Some modern interpreters also suggest that Genesis itself may be read in a reordered fashion:

Genesis 22 (Sacrifice): Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son demonstrates his ultimate faith.
Genesis 22:17 (Promise): God then promises to multiply Abraham’s descendants “as the stars of heaven and the sand on the seashore.”
Genesis 17 (Covenant): Abraham is finally declared “father of many nations” as a consequence, not a precondition.
This reading highlights Ishmael’s unique position: as the firstborn, circumcised before Isaac’s birth, Ishmael stands as the covenantal son through whom nations would arise.

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4. Summary of Perspectives

• Jewish & Christian Tradition (Canonical Order):
Covenant (Gen 15 & 17) → Near-sacrifice (Gen 22).

• Qur’anic Understanding:
Sacrifice (37:100–113) → Covenant confirmed (2:124) → Kaaba (2:125–129).

• Scholarly Reordering:
Genesis 22 (obedience & promise) → Genesis 17 (father of many nations).

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Conclusion

The question of whether the Abrahamic covenant was established before or after the sacrifice reveals profound theological differences.

• For Judaism and Christianity, the covenant is given first and tested later.


• For Islam, the covenant is established after Abraham’s trial of sacrifice, highlighting obedience as the gateway to divine leadership.


• For some scholars, Genesis itself is better read as sacrifice first, covenant second.

What unites all perspectives is the recognition that Abraham’s faith and obedience stand at the heart of God’s covenantal promise — whether as foundation, condition, or ultimate confirmation.

📜 Abraham’s Promise of Many Nations: A Reconsideration of Genesis 17 and 22

Introduction

The biblical narrative of Abraham is foundational to Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Central to his story is the divine promise that he would become the “father of many nations” (Genesis 17:4–7). However, the sequence of events between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22 raises theological and logical questions.

How could God promise Abraham numerous descendants in Genesis 17, only to command him later in Genesis 22 to sacrifice his son—the very means by which that promise would be fulfilled?

A reconsideration of the chronology suggests that Genesis 17 may actually be a consequence of the events in Genesis 22, and that the promise of “many nations” is tied more closely to Ishmael than to Isaac.

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The Tension Between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22

In Genesis 17:4–7, God tells Abraham:

“As for me, this is my covenant with you: You shall be the father of a multitude of nations. … I will make you exceedingly fruitful, and I will make nations of you, and kings shall come from you.”

Yet in Genesis 22, Abraham is commanded to sacrifice his son. If this son is Isaac, as traditionally held in Judaism and Christianity, then the sequence seems illogical: Why promise descendants through Isaac in Genesis 17, only to nearly eliminate that line in Genesis 22?

From an Islamic perspective, the son in Genesis 22 is not Isaac but Ishmael, which changes the framework of interpretation.

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Genesis 22:17 as the Key Promise

After Abraham demonstrates his obedience in the near-sacrifice narrative, God reaffirms His covenant with new force:

“I will surely bless you, and I will surely multiply your descendants as the stars of heaven and as the sand that is on the seashore. And your descendants shall possess the gate of their enemies” (Genesis 22:17).

This promise comes after Abraham’s supreme test of faith. It is therefore reasonable to see Genesis 22:17 as the pivotal moment where Abraham earns the covenant of multitude. Genesis 17, in this view, is not a precursor but rather a retrospective affirmation rooted in Abraham’s proven faithfulness (Genesis 22).

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Ishmael as the Fulfillment

If Ishmael is the son in Genesis 22—as preserved in Islamic tradition—the flow of the narrative becomes more coherent. God’s promise in Genesis 22:17 directly leads to Ishmael’s great destiny, as also stated earlier in Genesis 21:18:

“I will make him a great nation.”

Thus, Abraham’s role as “father of many nations” is logically connected to Ishmael’s posterity. Through Ishmael, vast nations arise—Arab tribes and, ultimately, the universal message of Islam through Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). This interpretation removes the apparent contradiction of God’s promise followed by the command of sacrifice.

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Rethinking the Chronology

If Genesis 22 is placed before Genesis 17 chronologically, the progression becomes logical:

Genesis 22: Abraham proves his loyalty through the sacrifice test.
Genesis 22:17: God rewards Abraham with the promise of innumerable descendants.
Genesis 17:4–7: God formalizes this covenant, affirming Abraham as the father of many nations.

In this arrangement, Genesis 17 flows naturally from Genesis 22. The promise of nations is not arbitrary but a divine response to Abraham’s obedience.

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Conclusion

By reordering the relationship between Genesis 17 and Genesis 22, the narrative tension is resolved. The promise that Abraham would be the “father of many nations” (Genesis 17:4–7) can be seen as the consequence of the divine oath in Genesis 22:17.

Within this framework, Ishmael—rather than Isaac—emerges as the key figure through whom Abraham’s covenant expands into multitude and universality. This reading aligns with the Islamic tradition, while also offering a coherent solution to the logical paradox in the biblical text.

🌟 Does the Expansion of Islam in the Middle East Fulfill the Prophecy in Genesis?

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📖 1. The Promise in Genesis

In the Book of Genesis (ch. 12, 15, 17), God promises Abraham that his descendants will inherit a specific land — described as stretching from the “River of Egypt” to the “Euphrates.”

• Abraham has two key lines of descendants:
• Isaac → leading to Jacob/Israel → the Israelites (the covenantal line).
• Ishmael → also blessed by God (Genesis 17:20), though not tied to the covenantal land promise.

✡️ In Jewish and Christian traditions, the covenantal promise of the land is linked specifically to Isaac’s descendants.

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🌴 2. The Ishmaelite Connection and Later Arabs

• Islamic tradition traces Arab descent (and much of the Muslim world) through Ishmael, Abraham’s first son.
• Genesis records that Ishmael too will become a “great nation” (Genesis 21:18).
• Thus:
• Isaac’s line = covenantal inheritance.
• Ishmael’s line = blessing and greatness in its own right.

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🌍 3. The Expansion of Islam

• In the 7th century, Islam arose in Arabia and rapidly spread across the Middle East and beyond.
• These lands overlap significantly with the territories mentioned in Genesis.

☪️ From an Islamic perspective: This spread reflects God’s promise to bless Ishmael’s descendants and make them into great nations across Abraham’s homeland.

✡️✝️ From Jewish and Christian perspectives: The covenantal inheritance remains with Israel, not Ishmael’s descendants.

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🕊️ 4. Theological Interpretations

• ✡️ Jewish perspective: The covenant and land promise are eternal for Israel alone. Islam’s rise is historical but not covenantal fulfillment.

• ✝️ Christian perspective: Views differ — some see the promise fulfilled spiritually in Christ (extended to all believers), while others expect a future literal fulfillment for Israel.

• ☪️ Islamic perspective: Muslims see themselves as the true heirs of Abraham’s faith through Ishmael and Muhammad. The expansion of Islam is seen as a realization of God’s promise of greatness.

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✅ Summary:

• ✡️/✝️ Jewish/Christian tradition: The specific land promise refers to Isaac’s descendants, not Ishmael’s.

• ☪️ Islamic tradition: The rapid growth and dominance of Ishmael’s descendants across Abraham’s homeland can be understood as a manifestation of God’s promise to Ishmael.

”Who Wrote the Bible? Unraveling the Origins of the Sacred Text“

For more than two thousand years, the Bible has stood at the heart of Western civilization — shaping faith, philosophy, literature, and law. Yet despite its universal influence, a fundamental question persists: who actually wrote it?

“In Who Wrote the Bible?”, biblical scholar Richard Elliott Friedman traces this mystery through centuries of investigation, revealing that the Bible is not the work of a single hand but a tapestry woven from multiple voices across hundreds of years.

From Tradition to Investigation

For centuries, both Jewish and Christian tradition maintained that Moses wrote the first five books — Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy — collectively known as the Torah or Pentateuch. However, inconsistencies within the text—such as repeated stories, contradictory timelines, and the account of Moses’s own death—challenged that belief.

Scholars across time, from medieval rabbis like Ibn Ezra to Enlightenment philosophers like Spinoza, began to recognize that these books contained multiple distinct styles, vocabularies, and perspectives, suggesting multiple authors.

The Discovery of the Four Sources

By the 19th century, biblical scholars identified four major literary sources behind the Torah, each representing a different time, community, and theological viewpoint. Friedman details how these sources were ultimately woven together by later editors into the unified narrative we now call the Bible.

1. J – The Yahwist (Earliest, c. 950 BCE)

Region: Southern Kingdom of Judah

Divine name used: Yahweh (Jehovah)

Tone: Earthy, vivid storytelling; emphasizes humanity and the closeness of God

Themes: God as directly involved in human affairs; focus on Judah’s royal line, especially David

Historical Context: Likely written during the early monarchy when Judah flourished under David and Solomon

2. E – The Elohist (c. 850 BCE)

Region: Northern Kingdom of Israel

Divine name used: Elohim (God)

Tone: More abstract, moralistic, and distant portrayal of God

Themes: Focuses on prophets, dreams, and moral testing (e.g., Abraham and Isaac); favors northern heroes like Joseph

Historical Context: Written in a time of tension between the northern and southern kingdoms, showing Israel’s distinct identity

3. D – The Deuteronomist (c. 622 BCE)

Region: Jerusalem, during the reign of King Josiah

Divine name used: Yahweh

Tone: Preaching, legalistic, reform-oriented

Themes: Centralization of worship in Jerusalem, covenant loyalty, divine justice

Historical Context: Likely written during Josiah’s religious reforms, when the “Book of the Law” was rediscovered in the Temple (2 Kings 22). This source forms nearly all of the book of Deuteronomy.

4. P – The Priestly Source (Latest, c. 550–400 BCE)

Region: During or after the Babylonian Exile

Divine name used: Elohim (early on), later Yahweh

Tone: Structured, ritualistic, concerned with laws, genealogies, and priestly duties

Themes: Emphasizes holiness, sacred order, ritual purity, and the authority of the priesthood

Historical Context: Composed when Israel’s identity was in crisis during exile; aimed to preserve religious traditions and priestly authority

Together, these four documents form the Documentary Hypothesis, which holds that the Pentateuch is a composite of these sources, edited into one continuous story by later redactors.

From Controversy to Acceptance

Initially, these discoveries were met with fierce opposition. Religious authorities denounced scholars who challenged Mosaic authorship — from Spinoza’s excommunication to John Colenso’s condemnation as “the wicked bishop.” But over time, evidence prevailed.

By the mid-20th century, even the Catholic Church, once cautious about historical criticism, encouraged scholarly study of the Bible’s human authors. Pope Pius XII’s 1943 encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu invited researchers to explore “the sources and the peculiar character of the sacred writers.”

The Earliest and the Latest Voices

According to Friedman’s synthesis:

The earliest biblical writings emerged around 950 BCE (J) in Judah, painting a vivid, personal vision of God’s relationship with humanity.

The latest writings (P) appeared nearly five centuries later (c. 500–400 BCE), after the Babylonian exile, systematizing worship and laws to preserve Israel’s faith and identity in a foreign land.

Thus, the Bible evolved over roughly half a millennium, reflecting a dialogue across generations — from storytellers and prophets to priests and reformers.

A Human and Divine Collaboration

Friedman concludes that understanding the Bible’s human authors does not undermine its sacredness — it deepens it. Knowing that the text was forged in the fires of history, politics, and faith allows modern readers to see it as a living conversation between humanity and God, across centuries of change.

Conclusion

“Richard Elliott Friedman’s Who Wrote the Bible?” transforms a mystery of faith into a story of human creativity and divine inspiration. The Bible emerges not as a monologue dictated from heaven, but as a chorus of voices — from the Yahwist poet of Judah to the priestly scribes of the Exile — each adding depth, struggle, and beauty to the world’s most influential book.